C.W. Post
Department of Earth and Environmental Science  

The major topic areas that we will have covered are:

Minerals
Igneous Rocks
Volcanoes
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Geologic Structures
Earthquakes
Earth's Interior

atoms and minerals
calcite (calcium carbonate), quartz, feldspars, muscovite and biotite mica, amphiboles (hornblende), pyroxenes (augite), olivine
- the eight most abundant chemical elements in the crust (especially oxygen & silicon)
- protons, neutrons, electrons and how they compose atoms
- the difference between atoms, elements, ions, compounds, minerals, and rocks
- chemical bonding: covalent and ionic
- mineral classes (silicates and non-silicates)
- mafic vs. felsic silicate minerals, relative amounts of covalent vs. ionic bonding, and resistance to weathering
- the difference between silicon, silica, and silicate (ugh!)
      silicon: the element
      silica: covalent compound between silicon and oxygen
      silicate: any mineral containing silica combined with various metal cations (Fe²⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, etc.)

igneous rocks
granite, rhyolite, diorite, andesite, gabbro, basalt
- melt: magma, lava
- melting/crystallization temperature of felsic (low) vs. mafic (hi) minerals
- solid-liquid-gas phases of matter and phase change melting/crystallization
      temperature = avg. kinetic energy
      physical (molecular) difference between solid and liquid (and gas) phases
- Igneous Texture: coarse-grained, fine-grained, porphyritic, glassy
      and mode of emplacement: plutonic (intrusive), vs. volcanic (extrusive)
- Color/Composition: felsic, intermediate, mafic, ultramafic
- classification of igneous rocks (texture and color/composition) 

igneous intrusions
- massive intrusion
      stocks (<100 km²)
      batholiths (>100 km²)
- tabular intrusion
      dikes (discordant, cut across strata)
      sills (concordant, parallel with strata)

volcanoes
- lava viscosity & temperature/composition; viscosity vs. volcano slope
- dissolved gases (CO₂ & water vapor), viscosity, and explosive eruptions
- pyroclastic material (bombs, ash, lapili), angle of repose
- shield volcanoes, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes (composite cones), calderas
- aa & pahoehoe lava
be able to draw simple profiles of volcanoes

sedimentary rocks
conglomerate, sandstone, shale, limestone, coal
the 5 steps in the formation of sedimentary rocks
      1. weathering of pre-existing rocks produces sediments
      2. transport
      3. deposition
      4. compaction
      5. cementation
1. weathering
mechanical:
      stream abrasion, sand blasting, frost wedging
chemical:
      formation of carbonic acid:most natural surface waters slightly acidic
      hydrolysis: silicate minerals in acid solution alter to clays + soluble ions
      dissolution, oxidation
weathering products: gravel sand, silt, clay, dissolved ions
2. transport: via streams, wind, glaciers, waves
      sorting and rounding
3. deposition (e.g., when stream velocity drops)
      sediments are deposited in horizontal layers (cross-bedding not withstanding)
      oldest layers are on the bottom, younger toward the top
4. compaction, from weight of sediments deposited on top
5. cementation:
      crusts of minerals precipitated from ions dissolved in water into the voids between sedimentary particles
      common cements: silica, calcite (fizzes), hematite (red)
classification of sedimentary rocks
      clastic: conglomerate (and breccia), sandstone, shale
      biogenic (biochemical): limestone, dolomite, coal
      chemical precipitates: halite, limestone (incl. oolitiic limestone)
the importance of sedimentary rocks
      fossil evidence for past life
      record of past geography: marine vs. terrestrial, stream deposits, desert deposits

metamorphic rocks
slate, schist, gneiss, quartzite, marble
conditions for metamorphism
      hi pressure and/or temperature (not so much to melt the rocks), hydrothermal fluids, time
regional metamorphism (our main interest)
      caused by deep burial associated with tectonic collisions and mountain building
other types include contact, hydrothermal, and cataclastic metamorphism
protolith --> meta rx (characteristics of meta rx compared to their protolith)
examples:
foliated (w/ slaty cleavage, schistosity, gneissic banding)
      shale --> slate (characteristics of each)
            bedding plane cleavage, relict bedding
      shale --> schist
      granite --> gneiss
non-foliated
      sandstone --> quartzite
      limestone --> marble

metamorphic rocks
slate, schist, gneiss, quartzite, marble
conditions for metamorphism
      pressure and heat (not so much heat to melt the rocks)
      fluids (including water and carbon dioxide stored in rocks)
regional metamorphism (our main interest)
      elevated pressure and temperature caused by deep burial cause by tectonic collisions and mountain building
other types include contact, hydrothermal, and cataclastic metamorphism
protolith --> meta rx (characteristics of meta rx compared to their protolith)
examples:
foliated (w/ slaty cleavage, schistosity, gneissic banding)
      shale --> slate (characteristics of each)
            bedding plane cleavage, relict bedding
      shale --> schist
      granite --> gneiss
non-foliated
      sandstone --> quartzite
      limestone --> marble

be able to draw simple sketches showing features of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks

structural geology
joints, faults, folds, metamorphic foliation
- compression, tension, shearing stress
- initial elastic response to stress (non-permanent deformation)
- brittle vs. ductile response to stress (permament deformation)
- hanging wall and footwall blocks
- folds
      anticlines and synclines
      fold axis
      plunging folds
- foliation
      slaty cleavage, schistosity, gneissic banding
      axial planar cleavage
- joint sets
     controls surface weathering and topography
- the 3 categories (4 types) of faults and the stress environments in which they are found
      normal faults (extension)
            crustal thinning and lengthening
            horst & graben
            half-grabens (Newark Basin & East African Rift)
      thrust & reverse faults (compression)
            crustal thickening and shortening
            mountain belts, collisions (e.g., modern Himalayas, ancient Appalachians)
      strike-slip faults (shearing)
            San Andreas Fault
- orientation of faults, folds, and foliation relative to the applied (tectonic) forces
be able to draw simple maps and profiles of faults and folds, etc.

earthquakes
- strain buildup -> rupture (slippage) on faults -> seismic waves propagate outward through Earth
- body waves: P waves, S waves
- surface waves: Love waves, Rayleigh waves
- epicenter and focus (hypocenter)
- basic principal of seismometers (inertial mass that remains stationary as the crust moves)
- determining distance from earthquake by S-P interval
- earthquake location via triangulation (S-P interval from three seismic stations)
- information needed to determine an earthquake's magnitude
      peak amplitude of ground motion at recording station
      S-P interval (to determine distance)
- the Richter magnitude scale of earthquake strength: logarithmic scale (powers of 10)
- what the moment magnitude scale measures as compared to the Richter scale
- Mercalli scale of earthquake intensity
- first motion studies to determine type of fault in an earthquake
- type of plate boundary where worst (greatest magnitude) earthquakes tend to occur
      convergent plate boundaries where an oceanic plate subducts (sinks) beneath another, overriding plate
- local bedrock geology and earthquake damage risk (esp. solid bedrock vs. unconsolidated sediments and saturated muds)
- earthquake "prediction"
      probabilities of EQs of given magnitude in certain number of years
      EQ sequence (e.g., Parkfield, Istanbul)
      seismic gaps (e.g., Alaska)
- earthquake early warning systems
- tsunamis: what causes them?
be able to draw simple sketches to illustrate methods in seismology (triangulation, first motion studies, magnitude determination)

earth's interior
- how earthquake seismology is useful for determining the internal structure of the earth
- wavefronts and ray paths
- major subdivisions of the earth from core to surface and the materials that make them up
- Moho: what it is (crust-mantle boundary) and how it was discovered
- characteristics (thickness, composition, density, age) of continental crust, oceanic crust, and mantle rock
- the core: P and S wave shadow zones, inner and outer core
- evidence/arguments for core composition: must be high density material common in the solar system,
          and account for seismic velocity and fluctuating magnetic field (core convection)
- low velocity zone - asthenosphere, lithosphere, tectonic plates
          the seismic evidence and the asthenosphere, what may cause it, it's significance for plate tectonics
be able to draw simple sketches to show how the crust-mantle boundary and mantle-core boundary were discovered