C.W. Post
Department of Earth and Environmental Science  

Following is a list of topics and terms typically covered in this course.

atoms and minerals
calcite (calcium carbonate), quartz, feldspars, muscovite and biotite mica, amphiboles (hornblende), pyroxenes (augite), olivine
- the eight most abundant chemical elements in the crust
- protons, neutrons, electrons and how they compose atoms
- the difference between atoms, elements, isotopes, ions, compounds, minerals, and rocks
- chemical bonding: covalent and ionic
- mineral classes (silicates and non-silicates)
- mafic vs. felsic silicate minerals, relative amounts of covalent vs. ionic bonding, and resistance to weathering
- the difference between silicon, silica, and silicates

igneous rocks and igneous bodies
granite, rhyolite, diorite, andesite, gabbro, basalt, peridotite, obsidian
- classification of igneous rocks
- igneous rock textures, coarse-grained, fine-grained, porphyry, glass, and how they form
- intrusive bodies: stocks, batholiths, dikes, sills
- volcanic textures: vesicular, scoria, pyroclastic; surface textures: pahoehoe, aa
- lava flows/viscosity: composition and temperature
- extrusive bodies: shield volcanoes, cinder cones, stratovolcanoes, calderas
- what type and viscosity of lava is associated with each

weathering and soil
- mechanical weathering (frost wedging, stream abrasion, etc.)
- chemical weathering (hydrolysis, dissolution, oxidation)
- the formation of carbonic acid and its role in chemical weathering
- the 3 or 4 end products of weathering silicate rocks
- the 3 soil-forming processes
- characteristics of the A, B, and C horizons in a typical temperate soil profile

sedimentary rocks
conglomerate, sandstone, shale, limestone, coal
- sedimentary classes: clastic, biogenic, chemical
- the five stages in the formation of a sedimentary rock from some preexisting rocks
- the three common cementing agents (where do they come from)
- significance of grain size, sorting, and rounding
- the relationship of grain size vs energy of the transporting medium (eg, stream velocity)

metamorphic rocks
slate, schist, gneiss, quartzite, marble
- protolith, regional and contact metamorphism
- causes of metamorphism (elevated temperature and pressure)
- types of foliation (slaty cleavage, schistosity, gneissic banding)
- orientation of foliations relative to the applied (tectonic) forces

the rock cycle
- the relationship and pathways between the three igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

structural geology
joints, faults, folds, metamorphic foliation
- the 3 categories (4 types) of faults and the stress environments in which they are found
- anticlines and synclines and age relations from core to limbs
- relationship of the orientation (strike) of folds and faults to the applied (tectonic) forces
be able to draw simple profiles or maps of faults showing their sense of motion

earthquakes
- strain buildup -> rupture (slippage) on faults -> seismic waves propagate outward through Earth
- P waves, S waves, and surface waves; epicenter, focus (hypocenter)
- earthquake location (triangulation)
- intensity (Mercalli) and magnitude (Richter) scales of earthquake strength
- first motion studies for determining orientation of fault and sense of fault motion

earth's interior
- how earthquake seismology is useful for determining the internal structure of the earth
- Moho, P and S wave shadow zones, low velocity zone, 670 km discontinuity
- major subdivisions of the earth from core to surface and the materials that make them up
- inner core, outer core, mantle (upper/lower, asthenosphere), lithosphere, crust
- the average thickness and the predominant igneous rock types (felsic, mafic) found in ocean crust
and in continental crust
- evidence for interior composition:
.......crust: we walk on it;
.......mantle: xenoliths, must account for seismic velocity
.......core: must be high density material common in the solar system,
............and account for seismic velocity and fluctuating magnetic field

earth heat engine
- sources of heat in the earth: primordial heat from formation, continuing radioactive decay
- mechanisms for cooling the earth: conduction and convection
- mantle convection is linked to motions of lithospheric plates on the earth's surface
- but mantle convection does not directly drive lithospheric motions
.......(the textbook paradigm is largely WRONG)

development of continental drift and plate tectonics
- Continental Drift:
Wegener and DuToit's paleoclimate indicators, truncated geologic features, far-flung fossils, and fit of the continents
paleomagnetic evidence for continental motions
- Seafloor Spreading
evidence: marine magnetic anomalies, distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes on the earth
midocean ridges, transform faults, fracture zones, deep sea trenches

plate tectonics
- mantle convection: heat from radioactive decay and leftover heat from formation of Earth
- slow convective rise of heated (solid, ductile) mantle, slow sinking of cooled mantle
- general indirect cause of plate motions: mantle convection
- specific causes: gravity -> ridge push, slab pull
- the types of plate boundaries and what happens (all the details) at each
divergent (midocean ridges, continental rifts)
convergent (ocean-ocean and ocean-continent subduction zones, continent-continent collisions)
transform (oceanic transforms, continental transforms)
- how depth to seafloor increases away from midocean ridge (cooling profile)
- what kind of faulting (earthquakes) generally occurs at each type of boundary
- The Ring of Fire; deep ocean trenches; Benioff zones
- primary earthquake belts on the Earth and zones where igneous (volcanic) activity is concentrated
be able to draw simple profiles or maps showing what happens at midocean ridges, subduction zones, oceanic transforms

groundwater
- the hydrologic cycle: precipitation = runoff + infiltration + evapo-transpiration
- porosity, permeability
- zone of aeration, zone of saturation, water table, aquicludes, cone of depression, drawdown
- unconfined aquifers, confined aquifers
- potentiometric surface (confined aquifers)
- typical permeable materials that make good aquifers: sand, gravel, sandstone, limestone
- impermeable aquiclude materials: clay, shale, joint-free igneous and metamorphic rocks
- water wells, how they work
- relationship of groundwater and surface water (surface streams, lakes and ponds, swamps)
- discharge and recharge zones
- landfills (garbage dumps) and our groundwater supply; sanitary landfills
- land subsidence from over-pumping
- saltwater intrusion
- groundwater - surface water interaction: gaining and losing streams (recharge and discharge)
be able to draw profile of the groundwater system, including wells, cones of depression, etc.

streams
- the work of streams: erosion, transport, deposition
- stream transport - bed load, suspended load, dissolved load
- relationship of stream velocity and discharge to competence and capacity
- meandering streams: velocities across a bend -> point bars, cut banks, oxbow bends and lakes
- floodplains, valley walls, natural levees, stream terraces
- graded stream profile
- youthful, mature, old age, and rejuvenated stream characteristics (profiles and map views)
be able to draw profile and map views of streams and stream valleys

coastal processes
- waves, tides, storms, changing sea-level
- size of waves determined by wind speed, duration, and fetch
- crest, trough, wavelength (L)
- orbital motion of water as wave passes, decreases to zero at depth of L/2
- what happens to a wave as it approaches shore (when water depth < L/2)
- breakers, swash, backwash
- beach profile: shoreface, berm, dune
- winter/summer profiles
- longshore drift and longshore currents
- wave refraction
- bays and headlands
- barrier islands
- tides and barrier islands: tidal currents and maintenance of lagoons and inlets
- coastal erosion and storms
- rising sea level and the U.S. east and Gulf coast
- effects of groins, seawalls, beach renourishment

glaciers
- alpine glaciers and continental ice sheets
- formation of glacial ice;
- moves via internal ductile flow, basal sliding (if warm enough)
- brittle upper portions crack to form crevasses
- cirques and tarns, U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, horns, aretes
- abrasion and plucking, glacial striations
- moraines (terminal, medial, and lateral)
- eskers, drumlins, kettles, outwash plains
- nature of glacial sediments
- glacial features on Long Island: moraines, outwash plain, kettles