C.W. Post
Department of Earth and Environmental Science  

rocks
know the difference between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, how they form, and the common types of each

earth's interior
- how earthquake seismology is useful for determining the internal structure of the earth
- Moho, P and S wave shadow zones, low velocity zone, 670 km discontinuity
- major subdivisions of the earth from core to surface and the materials that make them up
- inner core, outer core, mantle (upper/lower, asthenosphere), lithosphere, crust
- the average thickness and the predominant igneous rock types (felsic, mafic) found in ocean crust and in continental crust
- mechanism for cooling the earth's interior: convection
be able to draw simple profile showing how Earth's interior layers were discovered

development of continental drift and plate tectonics
- Continental Drift:
   Wegener and DuToit's paleoclimate indicators, truncated geologic features, far-flung fossils, and fit of the continents
- paleomagnetic evidence for continental motions
- Seafloor Spreading
   evidence: marine magnetic anomalies, distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes on the earth

plate tectonics
primary earthquake belts on the Earth and zones where igneous (volcanic) activity is concentrated
divergent plate boundaries
    midocean ridges
        plates spread apart and new crust forms
        source of magma: decompression (partial) melting of upwelling mantle...
        ridge stands high b/c hot; lithosphere cools & contracts as it moves away
    continental rifts (e.g., East African Rift)
        may continue to stretch and eventually form new midocean ridge, or stop stretchting to become a failed rift
convergent plate boundaries
    ocean-ocean subduction zone (e.g., Aleutians, Mariannas, Philipines, Japan)
    continent-ocean subduction zone (e.g., Andes)
        deep ocean trench and volcanic arc (continental or island arc) parallel to trench
        magma produced by flux melting of mantle above subducting crust after crust releases water by metamorphism
        Benioff zone: plane of EQs descending from trench, down as deep as ~670 km; shows location of subducting slab
     continent-continent collision (e.g., Himalayas, Appalachians)
        orogenic belt
transform plate boundaries
    oceanic transforms: ridge offsets
        transform faults and fracture zones
    continental transforms: (e.g., San Andreas, North Anatolian Fault in Turkey)
hotspot tracks (like the Hawaiian/Emperor chain of islands and seamounts)
     volcanically active at one end; volcanoes get progressively older down the chain
     fed by mantle plumes: rising conduit of hot, solid mantle rock, perhaps from the core-mantle boundary
     the rising mantle rocks begin to partially melt near the base of the lithosphere due to reduced pressure (decompression melting)
know the primary kind of faulting (earthquakes) that generally occurs at each type of boundary
     divergent (normal faults), convergent (thrust faults), transform (strike-slip faults)
be able to draw profiles and maps of midocean ridges, subduction zones, transform and fracture zones, and hotspots/mantle plumes

streams
- the hydrologic cycle: precipitation = runoff + infiltration + evapo-transpiration
- stream discharge (Q = VA)
- stream velocity profile (slowest along stream bed and banks - friction)
- cross-sectional shape of stream channel and ease of flow (hydraulic radius)
- stream transport: bed load, suspended load, dissolved load
- stream competence and capacity
- deposition vs transport vs erosion depending on stream velocity (Hjulstrom’s curve)
- stream networks, drainage divides
- meandering streams: velocities across a bend -> point bars, cut banks, oxbow bends and lakes
- youthful and mature stream valleys (profiles and map views)
- floodplains, valley walls, natural levees
- stream hydrographs: why the lag in peak discharge following a rain storm?
     and why doesn't the stream discharge end after the rainwater has gone through?
- stream deposits (point bar sands, natural levee sands, floodplain muds)
- flooding and effect of artificial levees
be able to draw profile and map views of streams and stream valleys

groundwater
- porosity, permeability
- typical permeable materials that make good aquifers: sand, gravel, sandstone, limestone
- impermeable aquiclude materials: clay, shale, unfractured igneous and metamorphic rocks
- zone of aeration, zone of saturation, water table, aquicludes, cone of depression, drawdown
- groundwater flows from where water table is high to where it is low
- streams and groundwater: gaining and losing streams (perennial, intermittent, ephemeral)
- water wells, how they work
- town water supplies, water towers
- confined aquifers, pressure surface (potentiometric surface)
- land subsidence from over-pumping
- lawn and agricultural chemicals
- landfills (garbage dumps) and our groundwater supply; sanitary landfills
- saltwater intrusion in the coastal zone
be able to draw and describe profiles of the groundwater system

coastal processes
- shorelines are modified by waves, tides, storms, and changing sea level rise
- size of waves determined by wind speed, duration, and fetch
- waves: crest, trough, wavelength (L)
- orbital motion of water as wave passes, decreases to zero at depth of L/2
- what happens to a wave as it approaches shore (when water depth < L/2)
- breakers, swash, backwash
- beach profile: shoreface, berm, dune
- winter/summer profiles (cause of differences)
- coastal sedimentation: coarse along the shoreline, progressively finer going offshore: why?
- littoral (longshore) drift and longshore currents
- tides: moon & sun, phases of the moon, spring and neap tides
- coastal storms and beach erosion: storm surge from wind setup and inverted barometer effect
     beach erosion due to large waves, wind setup, and return flow
- sea level rise from thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of glaciers as Earth warms
- small sea level rise = large landward shoreline retreat on gently sloping coastal plain of the eastern U.S.
- barrier islands retreat with rising sea level
- combined effects of slowly rising sea level and coastal storms (especially at high tide of the spring tides)
- effects of groins and seawalls
- beach nourishment
be able to draw simple profile and map views of the coast showing features and processes

  glaciers
- formation of glacial ice: snow-firn-ice
- glaciers move via internal ductile flow, basal sliding (where warm enough)
- glacial moraines    
- nature of glacial sediments: glacial till (unsorted mix of boulders, gravel, sand, and lots of silt from ground up rock)
- glacial features on Long Island: Harbor Hill & Ronkonkoma moraines
be able to draw profile views of glacial valleys